against a colonial government that tried to impose modest taxes on it from afar. In education, this sentiment came to be expressed as a staunch defense of local control of our schools. During most of the 19th century, the local school was the primary unit of educational governance for most Americans. An individual community built a school, hired a teacher, raised money through local taxes and fees, and implemented education on its own terms. Outside help was neither offered nor welcomed. This was the ultimate in local control. Even in large cities, control of education tended to rest at the ward level. Consider some numbers that suggest the radical degree of decentralization that has long characterized American education. It was not until 1937 that we started recording information about the number science activities of individual school systems in the country.

currently so strong that it may well leave a number of listeners wondering why such an obviously needed and beneficial reform activities wasn''t undertaken a long time ago. but the fact is that the effort to establish educational standards has always been an uphill fight in this country. in light of these circumstances, it is useful to examine why americans have so vigorously resisted educational standards over the years. the history of such resistance suggests that there science are three factors in particular that have made standards such a hard sell: a commitment to local control of schools, a commitment to expansion of educational opportunity, and a commitment to form over substance in the way we think about educational accomplishment. all three of these factors, which i treat below, can be traced in large part to our preference for one particular purpose of education:

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